Indigenous peoples in Colombia

In the Pre-Columbian era, the total population of Colombia was estimated to be between 6,000,000 and 10,000,000 people.^[15] However, after Spanish conquest, the population of Colombia was lowered to only 750,000 people, in which native peoples made up 80% of the population at 600,000 people.^[16] This would lower after independence when the population grew to 1,327,000 in which natives made up 53% of the population at 700,000 people.^[17] In the 1912 census, the native population accounted for 6.3% of the population, down from the 13.8% reported in 1851, this later lowered to 1% in the 1993 Census. However, due to increased recognition from the government, the percentage of registered indigenous people grew from 1% to 3.4% in the 2005 census, and later to 4.3% in the 2018 census. ^[18] This demographic decline can be explained by liberal policies implemented by new republican elites, which tried to abolish indigenous collective land ownership previously recognized by the Spanish monarchy, and forced natives to assimilate in mainstream national culture.^[19]As of 2023, the total population of Colombia has grown significantly to around 52,000,000 people, in which full-blooded natives are estimated to make up around 10% of the population at 5,200,000 people, the reason for the increase being due to raised awareness among Colombians about their indigenous identity and from the 1991 constitution, which gave more legal rights to indigenous communities.^[20] Despite the reduction in percentage of the total population, natives make up a large part of the genetic ancestry of Colombians. A study from Rojas et al determines that the average Colombian (of all races) has a mixture of 47% Amerindian, 42% European, and 11% African, ^[21] with natives having the most significant contribution in this study.

Some theories claim the earliest human habitation of South America to be as early as 43,000 BC, but the current scholarly consensus among archaeologists is that human habitation in South America only dates back to around 15,000 BC at the earliest.^{[citation needed]} Anthropologist Tom Dillehay dates the earliest hunter-gatherer cultures on the continent at almost 10,000 BC, during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods.^[22] According to his evidence based on rock shelters, Colombia's first human inhabitants were probably concentrated along the Caribbean coast and on the Andean highland slopes.^[22] By that time, these regions were forested and had a climate resembling today's.^[22] Dillehay has noted that Tibitó, located just north of Bogotá, is one of the oldest known and most widely accepted sites of early human occupation in Colombia, dating from about 9,790 BC. There is evidence that the highlands of Colombia were occupied by significant numbers of human foragers by 9,000 BC, with permanent village settlement in northern Colombia by 2,000 BC.^[22]

Beginning in the 1st millennium BC, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, Tairona, Calima, Zenú, Tierradentro, San Agustín, Tolima, and Urabá became skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft; and some developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.

Colombia's Indigenous culture evolved from three main groups—the Quimbaya, who inhabited the western slopes of the Cordillera Central; the Chibchas; and the Kalina (Caribs).^[22] When the Spanish arrived in 1509, they found a flourishing and heterogeneous Amerindian population that numbered between 6 and 10 million,^[23] belonged to several hundred tribes, and largely spoke mutually unintelligible dialects.^[22] The two most advanced cultures of Amerindian peoples at the time were the Muisca and Taironas, who belonged to the Chibcha group and were skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft.^[22] The Muisca lived mainly in the present departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, where they had fled centuries earlier after raids by the warlike Caribs, some of whom eventually migrated to Caribbean islands near the end of the first millennium A.D.^[22] The Taironas, who were divided into two subgroups, lived in the Caribbean lowlands and the highlands of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.^[22] The Muisca civilization was well organized into distinct provinces governed by communal land laws and powerful caciques, who reported to one of the two supreme leaders.^[22]

• Pre-Columbian
• 
  The zipa used to cover his body in gold and, from his Muisca raft, he offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the El Dorado legend.
• 
  A lowland Zenú cast-gold bird ornament that served as a staff head, dated 490 CE. This culture used alloys with a high gold content. The crest of the bird consists of the typical Zenú semi-filigree. Regular filigree is braided wire, but the Zenú cast theirs.
• 
  Tairona figure pendants in gold.
• 
  Golden statuette of a Quimbaya cacique.
• 
  San Agustín Archaeological Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site), contains the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in Latin America^[24] and is considered the world's largest necropolis.
• 
  Ciudad Perdida is a major settlement believed to have been founded around 800 CE. It consists of a series of 169 terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several small circular plazas. The entrance can only be accessed by a climb up some 1,200 stone steps through dense jungle.^[25]

Pre-Columbian history edit

The complexity of the Indigenous peoples' social organization and technology varied tremendously, from stratified agricultural chiefdoms to tropical farm villages and nomadic hunting and food-gathering groups.^[22] At the end of the colonial period, the native population still constituted about half of the total population.^[22] In the agricultural chiefdoms of the highlands, the Spaniards successfully imposed institutions designed to ensure their control of the Amerindians and thereby the use of their labor.^[22] The colonists had organized political and religious administration by the end of the sixteenth century, and they had begun attempts to religiously convert the Amerindians to Christianity, specifically Roman Catholicism.^[22]

The most important institution that regulated the lives and welfare of the highland Amerindians was the resguardo, a reservation system of communal landholdings.^[22] Under this system, Amerindians were allowed to use the land but could not sell it.^[22] Similar in some respects to the Native American reservation system of the United States, the resguardo has lasted with some changes even to the present and has been an enduring link between the government and the remaining highland tribes.^[22] As land pressures increased, however, encroachment of white or mestizo settlers onto resguardo lands accelerated, often without opposition from the government.^[22]

The government generally had not attempted to legislate in the past in matters affecting the forest Amerindians.^[22] During the colonial period, Roman Catholic missions were granted jurisdiction over the lowland tribes.^[22] With the financial support of the government, a series of agreements with the Holy See from 1887 to 1953 entrusted the evangelization and education of these Amerindians to the missions, which worked together with government agencies.^[22] Division of the resguardos stopped in 1958, and a new program of community development began to try to bring the Amerindians more fully into the national society.^[22]

The struggle of the Indigenous people on these lands to protect their holdings from neighboring landlords and to preserve their traditions continued into the late 20th century, when the 1991 constitution incorporated many of the Amerindian demands.^[22] New resguardos have been created, and others have been reconstituted, among forest tribes as well as highland communities.^[22] The 1991 constitution opened special political and social arenas for Indigenous and other minority groups.^[22] For example, it allowed for creation of a special commission to design a law recognizing the black communities occupying unsettled lands in the riverine areas of the Pacific Coast.^[22] Article 171 provides special Senate representation for Amerindians and other ethnic groups, while Article 176 provides special representation in the Chamber of Representatives: two seats "for the black communities, one for Indian communities, one for political minorities, and one for Colombians residing abroad".^[22] Article 356 guarantees Amerindian territorial and cultural rights, and several laws and decrees have been enacted protecting them.^[22] Article 356 refers somewhat vaguely to both "Indigenous territorial entities" and Indigenous resguardos.^[22]

By 1991 the country's 587 resguardos contained 800,271 people, including 60,503 families.^[22] The general regional distribution of these resguardos was as follows: Amazonia, 88; llanos, 106; Caribbean lowlands, 31; Andean highlands, 104; and Pacific lowlands, 258.^[22] They totaled 27,900,000 hectares (108,000 sq mi), or about 24 percent of the national territory.^[22] Colombia today may have as many as 710 resguardos in 27 of the 32 departments.^[22]

Individual Indigenous groups have a variety of governance structures. A number of Indigenous groups are represented through the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC - Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia). Increasing organization and agitation have sharply broadened the Indigenous land base over the past forty years. The government titled more than 200 new reserves from 1960 to 1990, with 334 total operating as autonomous municipalities by 1997.^[26]

Indigenous peoples hold title to substantial portions of Colombia, primarily in the form of Indigenous Reserves (Spanish: resguardos), which encompass one-third of the country's land.^[1] The Indigenous Affairs division of the Ministry of Interior has 567 reserves on record, covering approximately 365,004 km² which are home to 800,272 persons in 67,503 families.^[27]

The 1991 National Constitution of Colombia defined Territorial Entities (Entidades Territoriales) as departments, districts, municipalities and Indigenous territories.Within an Indigenous Territory Entity (ETI) the people have autonomy in managing their interests, and within the limits of the constitution have the right to manage resources and define taxes required to perform their duties. ETIs are to be defined by the government in conformance with the Organic Law on Land Management.However, this law has yet to be sanctioned so in practice the territories are unregulated.^[28]

Departments edit

According to ethnic self-identification. Data from the 2018 Colombian Census.

Department	Total population (2018)	Indigenous population[29]	Percentage[29]
Amazonas	66,056	38,130	57.7
Guainía	44,431	33,280	74.9
Vaupés	37,690	30,787	81.7
Vichada	76,642	44,578	58.2

Municipalities edit

Municipalities with predominant Indigenous population by self-identification.^[30]

Municipality	Predominant Indigenous group	Province	Department
El Encanto	Witoto	Amazonas	Amazonas
La Chorrera	Witoto	Amazonas	Amazonas
La Pedrera	Yucuna	Amazonas	Amazonas
La Victoria	Tanimuca	Amazonas	Amazonas
Leticia	Ticuna	Amazonas	Amazonas
Mirití-Paraná	Yucuna	Amazonas	Amazonas
Puerto Alegría	Witoto	Amazonas	Amazonas
Puerto Arica	Witoto	Amazonas	Amazonas
Puerto Nariño	Ticuna	Amazonas	Amazonas
Puerto Santander	Witoto	Amazonas	Amazonas
Tarapacá	Ticuna	Amazonas	Amazonas
Dabeiba	Emberá Katio	Western Antioquia	Antioquia
Frontino	Emberá Katio	Western Antioquia	Antioquia
Piojó	Mokaná	Western Atlántico	Atlántico
Tubará	Mokaná	Western Atlántico	Atlántico
Usiacurí	Mokaná	Central Atlántico	Atlántico
Cubará	U'wa	Cubará	Boyacá
Güicán de la Sierra	U'wa	Gutiérrez	Boyacá
Marmato	Emberá Katio	Upper Western Caldas	Caldas
Riosucio	Emberá Katio	Upper Western Caldas	Caldas
Supía	Emberá Katio	Upper Western Caldas	Caldas
Milán	Coreguaje	Caquetá	Caquetá
Solano	Witoto	Caquetá	Caquetá
Orocué	Sáliva	Casanare	Casanare
Almaguer	Yanacona	South Cauca	Cauca
Caldono	Nasa	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
Corinto	Nasa	North Cauca	Cauca
Inzá	Nasa	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
Jambaló	Nasa	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
La Vega	Yanacona	South Cauca	Cauca
Morales	Nasa	Central Cauca	Cauca
Páez	Nasa	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
Piamonte	Inga	South Cauca	Cauca
Piendamó	Misak	Central Cauca	Cauca
Puracé	Coconuco	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
San Sebastián	Yanacona	South Cauca	Cauca
Santa Rosa	Inga	South Cauca	Cauca
Silvia	Misak	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
Sotará	Nasa	Central Cauca	Cauca
Toribío	Nasa	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
Totoró	Nasa	Eastern Cauca	Cauca
Pueblo Bello	Ijka	North Cesar	Cesar
El Carmen de Atrato	Emberá Katio	Atrato	Chocó
Chimá	Zenú	Lower Sinú	Córdoba
Chinú	Zenú	Sabanas	Córdoba
Momil	Zenú	Lower Sinú	Córdoba
Purísima de la Concepción	Zenú	Lower Sinú	Córdoba
San Andrés de Sotavento	Zenú	Sabanas	Córdoba
Tuchín	Zenú	Sabanas	Córdoba
Barrancominas	Piapoco	Guainía	Guainía
Cacahual	Curripaco	Guainía	Guainía
Inírida	Puinave	Guainía	Guainía
La Guadalupe	Curripaco	Guainía	Guainía
Morichal	Puinave	Guainía	Guainía
Pana Pana	Curripaco	Guainía	Guainía
Puerto Colombia	Curripaco	Guainía	Guainía
San Felipe	Curripaco	Guainía	Guainía
Miraflores	Tucano	Guaviare	Guaviare
Íquira	Nasa	North Huila	Huila
Mapiripán	Sikuani	Southern Lower Ariari	Meta
Puerto Gaitán	Sikuani	Meta River	Meta
Aldana	Pasto	South Nariño	Nariño
Contadero	Pasto	South Nariño	Nariño
Córdoba	Pasto	South Nariño	Nariño
Cuaspud	Pasto	South Nariño	Nariño
Cumbal	Awá	South Nariño	Nariño
Guachucal	Pasto	South Nariño	Nariño
Ipiales	Cofán	South Nariño	Nariño
Mallama	Awá	Piedemonte Costero	Nariño
Potosí	Pasto	South Nariño	Nariño
Ricaurte	Awá	Piedemonte Costero	Nariño
Santacruz	Awá	Los Abades	Nariño
Sapuyes	Pasto	La Sabana	Nariño
Túquerres	Pasto	La Sabana	Nariño
Colón	Inga	Putumayo	Putumayo
Mocoa	Kamëntsá	Putumayo	Putumayo
Puerto Leguízamo	Witoto	Putumayo	Putumayo
San Francisco	Kamëntsá	Putumayo	Putumayo
San Miguel	Cofán	Putumayo	Putumayo
Santiago	Inga	Putumayo	Putumayo
Sibundoy	Kamëntsá	Putumayo	Putumayo
Orito	Emberá Chamí	Putumayo	Putumayo
Villagarzón	Inga	Putumayo	Putumayo
Mistrató	Emberá	Pacific Risaralda	Risaralda
Pueblo Rico	Emberá	Pacific Risaralda	Risaralda
Quinchía	Emberá Chamí	Western Risaralda	Risaralda
Palmito	Zenú	Morrosquillo	Sucre
Sampués	Zenú	Sabanas	Sucre
San José de Toluviejo	Zenú	Morrosquillo	Sucre
Coyaima	Pijao	South Tolima	Tolima
Natagaima	Pijao	South Tolima	Tolima
Ortega	Pijao	South Tolima	Tolima
Albania	Wayuu	Upper Guajira	La Guajira
Dibulla	Kogi	Upper Guajira	La Guajira
Distracción	Wayuu	Lower Guajira	La Guajira
Hatonuevo	Wayuu	Lower Guajira	La Guajira
Maicao	Wayuu	Upper Guajira	La Guajira
Manaure	Wayuu	Upper Guajira	La Guajira
Riohacha	Wayuu	Upper Guajira	La Guajira
Uribia	Wayuu	Upper Guajira	La Guajira
Cururú	Tucano	Vaupés	Vaupés
Mitú	Cubeo	Vaupés	Vaupés
Pacoa	Cubeo	Vaupés	Vaupés
Papunahua	Cubeo	Vaupés	Vaupés
Taraira	Tanimuca	Vaupés	Vaupés
Yavaraté	Cubeo	Vaupés	Vaupés

According to the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC), there are 102 Indigenous groups in Colombia.^[31] The ethnic groups with the greatest number of members are the Wayuu (380,460), Zenú, (307,091), Nasa (243,176) and Pastos (163,873). These peoples account for 58.1% of Colombia's Indigenous population.^[32]

Highland peoples refer to the cultures of the Andes and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta of Colombia, while lowland peoples refer to the inhabitants of Chocó, Amazonía, Guajira and the Caribbean Coast, the Urabá Region and other non-mountain cultures.

Indigenous people comprise 4.4–10% of the population of Colombia and their level of income as well as the indicators of human development as education and health conditions are behind compared to those of the rest of the Colombians.^[34] During the last twenty years, there has been a remarkable increase of the interest dedicated to the concerns of Indigenous communities all over the world. Therefore, the United Nations proclaimed the disclosure of the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People and in Latin America on 10 December 1994 and in Latin America. More than in any other region, this period was characterized by a wave of Indigenous movements which practised a growing political power, since the resistance of the Chiapas of 1994 until the fall of the governments of Ecuador and Bolivia.

The rise of Indigenous mobilization in Colombia is explained as a reaction of crisis at various levels: a crisis of representation, caused by the shortcomings of political parties with sufficient representation to shoulder all collectives' interests; a crisis of participation, that is the result of the lack of citizen's participation in state's business; and a legitimation crisis, due to the discrimination against some social groups.^[35]

During their struggle for rights, Indigenes abandoned the armed struggle of the 1980s and the new strategy included forms of legal liberalism, a politics of identity and the use of transnational networks putting pressure on the state to achieve recognition and respect.^{[citation needed]} This hasn't always led to success and often turned into victims of the cultural project of neoliberalism.^{[citation needed]} Besides the cultural accomplishments there was an escalation of the acts of persecution and in the number of violations committed against them.^{[citation needed]}

According to the Indigenous National Organization of Colombia (ONIC) there are 102 Indigenous peoples in Colombia and only 82 of them are recognized by the Colombian government. One of the main problems the Colombian Indigenous communities are currently facing is the lack of recognition of their right to be consulted. Poverty is another central aspect in order to understand the contemporary situation of the Indigenes of Colombia, which has been measured making use of the Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN), considering people poor who have insufficiencies in living, services and education. Facts show differences between zones: those of greater influence of poverty measured with the UBN standard are Chocó, Sucre, Boyacá, Nariño and Córdoba, with numbers that exceed the 50% of the population and those of less influence are found in Bogotá and the departments of El Valle, Atlántico and the cafetero-core: Caldas, Quindío and Risaralda.In 1986 the concept of pobreza absoluta was introduced in the nation, during a situation of crisis of governability and the escalation of the problems concerning the armed conflict. With the politics of struggle against poverty the presence of the state was tried to be consolidated in zones which were considered 'marginal', especially those areas including Indigenous population.^{[citation needed]}

Politics between 1986 and 1990 tried to rehabilitate the marginal zones and their integration to achieve development; specific institutions were set up to work with Indigenous communities, seeing them as farmer communities which habits and forms of production had to be modernized. As a consequence, the Indigenous minorities revolted, arguing that it was not up to them to reintegrate but it was the state that had to reform his ideas and recognize them as the original Colombian population. The goal was to solve the crisis of governability by eliminating poverty, without excluding local necessities and impulse development from out of the perspective of diversity. The Indigenous communities were considered to be marginal sectors in disadvantage, a highly retarded population which had to be incorporated and integrated in greater society. The Indigenous people were not seen as a part of the diversity of the nation which participation was needed for the construction of it. This conception has survived since the colonization of the continent until now: generally, the Indigenous and also the black diversity is still seen as a negative element which has to be reduced or completely wiped out to guarantee the development and the modernization of Latin American societies.^{[citation needed]}

Despite the Constitution of 1991 with the introduction of the multi-ethnic and multicultural character of the Colombian nation, the contemporary relation between the state and the Indigenous communities seems to be contradictory, particularly because of the presence of the demands of autonomy of the latter. Until today the Colombian government has recognized the Indigenous groups only as communities, meaning that they are considered to be culturally diverse and therefore require a different political treatment to be able to integrate them in national society. Different forms of participation have been assigned to the communities, but always in conformity with legal and constitutional regulations of the state, defined and established throughout history. Though the 1990s were a decade of mobilization and in some way a victory in terms of neoliberal multiculturalism, after twenty years of the Constitution of 1991 people have realized the need of turning to other forms of mobilization, more than legal mobilization. It has been shown that the recognition of equality is not enough; Indigenous peoples have also demanded their right to difference, that is, access to particular rights as Indigenous communities.

Many people in Colombia choose not to identify as indigenous due to the history of discrimination against them and the immense wealth gap between those who identify as indigenous and those who don't, leading to only 1% of Colombians in the 1993 census to identify as indigenous, or under a million people. During the most recent censuses however, more people have begun to identify as indigenous, from 3.4% in the 2005 census to 4.31% in the 2018 census. Many scholars estimate the true indigenous population of Colombia to be around 10% of the country’s population, or 5 million people,^{[citation needed]} the same can be said for Afro Colombians who are estimated to be around 20% of the total population or 10 million people, despite only 6% of Colombians identifying as Afro Colombian in the 2018 census.^[36][37][38]

Currently, Indigenous political participation, both in national and local elections, remains low, because of various reasons: the fragmentation of the movement due to the several groups within the Colombian Indigenous communities; the loss of the vote from non-Indigenous leaders and the low number of voters due to the fact that many who identify as Indigenous comprise a small part of the national population and most of them live in the countryside without possibilities to vote.

• Hunzahúa (c. 1470), zaque of Hunza within the Muisca Confederation.
• India Catalina (c. 1495–1538), interpreter and translator, of Mokaná descent.
• Aquiminzaque (unknown–1540), last zaque of Hunza within the Muisca Confederation.
• Agustín Agualongo (1780–1824), military commander of the Royalist forces during the Colombian War of Independence, of Pasto descent.
• José María Melo (1800–1860), 7th President of the Republic of New Granada, of Pijao descent.
• Quintín Lame (1880–1967), Indigenous rebel of Nasa origin.
• Feliciano Valencia (1955–), Senator of Colombia for Cauca, of Nasa origin.
• Lorenzo Muelas (1938–), Indigenous activist of Misak origin.
• María Clemencia Herrera Nemerayema (1968–), Indigenous Amazonian activist, of Witoto descent.
• Aida Quilcué (1973–), Senator of Colombia for Cauca, of Nasa origin.
• Lido Pimienta (1986–), Colombian-Canadian songwriter and musician, of Wayuu descent.
• Martha Peralta Epieyú (1988–), Senator of Colombia for La Guajira, of Wayuu descent.
• Luis Díaz (1997–), Colombian footballer, of Wayuu descent.

• Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia
• Spanish conquest of the Muisca
• Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations
• Indigenous peoples of South America
• National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC)
• Colombian mythology
• Colombian folklore
• Archaeological sites in Colombia
• Race and ethnicity in Colombia
• Mestizo Colombians
• Concordat of 1928 (mostly deals with Missionary activities among Indigenous peoples)

• Ideologia mesianico del mundo andino, Juan M. Ossio Acuña, Edicion de Ignacio Prado Pastor

13. http://juankbusaenz.blogspot.com/2011/

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indigenous peoples of Colombia.

• UNESCO report on education of indigenous peoples in Colombia
• (in Spanish) Ethnic groups of Colombia
• Documentary about the Wayuu Indigenous people of Colombia
• Wayuu women