How to Care for a Pet Rat

Rats have been called "low maintenance dogs" because of their appealing blend of intelligence and loyalty. While no pet can really be considered "low maintenance," rats are certainly much easier to care for. A well-socialized, happy rat makes for a friendly, sweet, inquisitive, intelligent, and interactive pet. These entertaining creatures make great pets, but if you are considering getting a pet rat, do your homework first. Caring correctly for any pet, no matter its size, is important.

Part 1

Part 1 of 4:

Deciding to Keep Rats

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1
Consider the commitment. Rats live for around 2-3 years or more, so look ahead and be sure you can care for the pet over this length of time.^{[1]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
- Think about the time and commitment it takes to look after another living animal. This means keeping the cage clean, regular feeding and handling, and if the pet gets sick, taking him to the vet.
- Remember that you'll need to find someone to care for your rats when you go on vacation or out of town. Many rat owners can testify that it's really hard to find someone comfortable enough to care for and handle rats (a lot of people can be squeamish) so try, if you can, to line up at least 3 or 4 potential candidates who are willing to watch your rats if you need to leave town. Pet stores sometimes offer to take care of pets.
2
Think about your other animals. If you already own other pets, especially cats, then think about whether or not the pets you already care for will be able to live harmoniously with rats. Research about how to introduce a new pet, or keep the cage on a high shelf or in a closed room other animals cannot get into. It is most likely the best idea to keep your rats and other animals separated.
- Cats may be a particular problem. They prey on rodents, including rats, and so you could end up inadvertently teasing the cats and terrifying or endangering the rats.^{[2]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
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3
Spend some time with rats. Before deciding to purchase rats, visit somebody who already has one. There are features of this animal that some people find unpleasant, so it's a good idea to make sure you will actually enjoy caring for them before obtaining any. There are many variations of rats, including tail-less, fur-less, and miniature. But be aware that some of these varieties are prone to different issues and health problems.
- Pet rats that are kept in clean conditions do not have a strong smell, but they do have a slight odor that not everyone likes. Before getting your own pet rat, make sure you are comfortable with the smell or find a good bedding to absorb it. Remember, harmful chemicals and pine shavings are bad for rats - the resins can irritate their lungs.^{[3]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
- Similarly, some people find the scurrying action of a rat disconcerting. Little claws can tickle! Rattie tails can also be a little strange at first. Try handling a rat to make sure you are comfortable with the animal's mannerisms and anatomy.
- Be sure to have a good cage that is big enough, airy, and safe. Wire cages are preferable to aquariums, as they allow for better airflow. Do not get aquariums or your rats will get respiratory infections and most likely die. Make sure the floor is not wire or your rat could possibly get bumblefoot. If you use wire pick a cage with bar spacing between 1/2 inch and 3/4 inch.^{[4]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
4
Consider the risk of cancer. Unfortunately, cancer is a common problem in pet rats, and it can sadly shorten their life. Although not every rat develops tumors, it is something to be aware of as a prospective rat keeper.^{[5]XExpert SourceBrian Starr
Rat Specialist & BreederExpert Interview. 18 March 2021.} Other issues may crop up, including mites and respiratory infection.^{[6]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
- Ask yourself if you can afford the cost of surgery if your rat develops a lump that needs removal. If the answer is no, then are you prepared to euthanize a beloved pet at a relatively young age in order to prevent suffering? If this is not something you can handle, rats may not be the right pet for you. The most important thing is responsibility.
5
Choose the right number of rats. Rats are social creatures who enjoy each other's company and live in colonies in the wild. It is highly, "highly" recommended that you purchase more than one, and it is best if you purchase them at the same time. ^{[7]XResearch sourceAcademic Press. 2nd edition.}
- A rat needs almost constant interaction to prevent boredom, so it's best to get two or more rats. No matter how much time you spend with them they will still be lonely, so get another one if you possibly can. Your rats will thank you.^{[8]XResearch sourceThe Laboratory Rat. Weisbroth, Franklin, and Suckow. Academic Press. 2nd edition.}
- The better alternative is to adopt more than one rat, so they can keep each other company. If you decide on more than one rat, it is advisable to get your rats from the same place at the same time to reduce problems with quarantining or introducing them. Rat introductions can be difficult, especially with territorial, intact male rats.
- Keep in mind that two rats is not at all more work than one. In fact, you'll find that it's easier to care for two or three rats because they'll all be happier with one another to play with. Differences in the amounts of food and bedding you'll need to use are marginal and hardly noticeable. The only real challenge in getting more than one rat is trying to fit them all on your shoulders when you walk around with them!
- Likewise, if you opt for multiple rats, get animals of the same sex, or you may find you have established a breeding colony. Breeding rats is not advisable unless you're a breeder and know exactly what you're doing--there are so many rats without homes that it's much better not to breed. Adoption is preferable to breeding.^{[9]XResearch sourceThe Laboratory Rat. Weisbroth, Franklin, and Suckow. Academic Press. 2nd edition.}
- Some veterinarians will neuter rats, so if you unexpectedly find you have a male and female, you can talk to your vet about the possibility of having the male neutered. Keep in mind, however, that rats are not usually desexed because anesthesia is especially risky for them.
6
Acquire your rats. Whenever possible, adoption is best, since there are so many rats out there needing homes. Rats are best acquired from a breeder or rescuer. They have a more intimate knowledge of the rats in their care and can help you find the right animal or animals for you. It is best to buy them from a trusted breeder or rescuer as pet store rats can sometimes have more health issues, making it more expensive in the long run.
- Always thoroughly research any rescuers/breeders before choosing your pet, to make sure they keep their animals in humane and healthy conditions.
- Pet store rats are usually from "mills" and little consideration is taken for their health. If you do decide to buy from a pet store, avoid rats with the following problems: red discharge around the eyes and nose, noisy breathing, open wounds, lethargy, cloudy eyes, dull coat, or runny feces.^{[10]XResearch sourceThe Laboratory Rat. Weisbroth, Franklin, and Suckow. Academic Press. 2nd edition.}
- Male and female rats may be mixed in pet store rat cages, one of the many reasons you shouldn't be adopting from a chain pet shop. Even if you only buy one or two rats initially, a few weeks down the road you may find you have more rats than you bargained for if one of them is a female, so be sure that it is the preferable gender that you want. It's okay to decide not to own a rat!

Part 2

Part 2 of 4:

Creating a Good Home for Rats

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1
Buy the right cage. Buy a large cage with solid metal flooring, as rats can chew through plastic, levels, and ramps. Wire flooring, if not properly cleaned, can cause bumblefoot. If you are not experienced with wire floor ware, steer clear of cages with wire shelving. 2 rats need a cage that measures at least 18 x 28 x 31. Rats cannot be housed in tanks due to the ammonia build up.
- For every rat, there should be a minimum of two square feet, but two and a half square feet or more is better.^{[11]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- The bar spacing should be no more than 3/4 of an inch for a full-grown rat, and no more than 1/2 an inch for babies. If the spaces between bars are larger than that, chicken wire can be used to close the gaps. The bars themselves should be powder coated to avoid rat urine corroding the bars. Rats are excellent jumpers and climbers and should be able to execute their acrobatics in their cage without flying through the bars.^{[12]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- An alternative is a perspex or plastic house, such as a Rotastak cage. These usually have a colored base (which helps the rat feel more secure) and clear walls so that you can see your pets. They are designed to be interconnected with other units so that you can build a complex and interesting rat city for your pets. The rats can also be restricted to one area while you clean the other attachments. Cleaning perspex or plastic is easy because of the flat surfaces (rather than all the nooks and crannies in chicken wire or metal bars).
2
Add food and water dishes. Set up an area for your rats to eat and drink, providing either separate bowls for food and water or a sipper bottle. Always provide more than one food and water source for multiple rats to prevent resource-guarding.
- Sipper bottles are a great option because the water is kept clean in the bottle and the sipper is attached to the cage, preventing it from being knocked over by playful rats. Glass works best as the rats cannot chew through it.
- You can also scatter feed (feed without a bowl by scattering food throughout the cage and substrate) to discourage selective feeding and provide some extra enrichment.
3
Add the right bedding. The bottom of the cage should be lined with a soft, absorbent material.
- Use wood-shaving bedding found at a pet store for your cage bedding. Ensure the shavings are kiln-dried and dust extracted. Be sure you're not using pine or cedar shavings, that is not kiln dried though, because the fumes from the shavings mixed with rat urine can be fatal for your pets. Pine and cedar that are not kiln dried and dust extracted are dusty and contain oils that can cause respiratory irritation and breathing difficulties. Such bedding materials should be avoided. An example of safe pine shavings is Bedmax. Many horse beddings are safe for rats as horses also have delicate respiratory systems. Fleece or towels are okay, especially for covering wire platforms, however, you need to wash them two or more times a week, depending on how many rats you have. Fleece doesn't absorb ammonia very well and it doesn't allow the rats to engage in their natural foraging behaviors, so it is not ideal as the main substrate. You can also purchase paper shavings, but it is expensive and smells. Newspaper is a good option and very good for the environment, but the ink could stain light-colored rats. Hay is dusty and smells really bad when mixed with urine as well. ^{[13]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Another good option is Carefresh, a reclaimed cellulose bedding available in many pet stores, or recycled newspaper bedding like Yesterday's News. Don't use your paper shredder and just shred your own paper, though--some of the ink can potentially cause illness in rats.^{[14]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}^{[15]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
4
Provide a nest. It is a natural behavior for a rat to want to hide away at vulnerable times, such as when it is asleep. For this purpose provide a nest or sleeping area for your pets.^{[16]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- You can either buy the typical plastic houses that are commonly found in pet stores, or you can get wicker balls that have entrance holes. These more closely mimic what a rat would choose in the wild.
5
Consider a rat toilet. Just like dogs, rats don't like to soil their sleeping and eating quarters, and you can use this to your advantage by providing a rat toilet.^{[17]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Rat toilets are small plastic boxes with an entrance hole or open corner-boxes. You can place aspen shavings, newspaper, or Carefresh an inch thick in the bottom of the rat toilet.
- Place the toilet in the opposite corner to the nest and food bowls. Most rats quickly work out what the box is for and are delighted to have a place to go and keep the rest of their accommodations clean. For best results, wait and see if your rats choose a corner of the cage to 'go,' before placing the litter box. However, not all rats are quite so neat, so just placing it in can also work.^{[18]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Rat toilets also make cleaning their cages easier, because every couple of days you can simply empty out the toilet, disinfect it with a spray disinfectant that is non-toxic to small pets (vinegar works well), and refill it with rat litter.
6
Buy toys for your rats. Supplement your cage with toys, hammocks, and places to hide.
- Rats love to be busy and will play with toys while you're away.^{[19]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Toilet paper rolls, small stuffed cat toys, ping-pong balls, hammocks... rats love to play, and anything will suffice to entertain them. Find little trinkets (not too little, though, or your rats might swallow or choke on them) around the house to decorate and make their cage look like a home.
- Don't put things like yarn or string in for toys--they can choke your rats. Use common sense when choosing toys and make sure your rats will be safe with the item in the cage.

Part 3

Part 3 of 4:

Keeping Rats Healthy

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1
Keep your rats fed and hydrated. Check their food and water at least twice a day. Bowls easily get knocked over or bedding kicked into the water, so you need to be vigilant.
- If using a sipper bottle, you still need to refresh the water daily, and remember to disinfect the sipper nozzle at least twice a week.^{[20]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Offer your rat about 12 milliliters (0.4 fl oz) (about two heaping teaspoons) per day of a compounded rodent food such as Oxbow Regal Rat, Mazuri, or Harlan Teklab blocks which can be bought in bulk online. These are superior to seed-mix diets because the ingredients are compounded together and the rat cannot selectively eat the tasty (and often less healthy) parts and leave the bland bits in the bowl.^{[21]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Feeding a mixed diet can be good for rats as it provides an additional source of enrichment. You can prevent selective feeding by weighing their food to ensure you feed them the correct amount. Scatter feeding also helps discourage selective feeding.
- Supplement their compounded diet with fresh foods such as fresh fruit and vegetables. Rats have very similar dietary needs to humans, and they can eat nearly anything. Find a list of foods that rats can't eat and anything else is likely just fine. Rats can even have chocolate! Giving your rats a piece of fruit or even just some table leftovers once or twice a day is perfect for keeping them happy and healthy.^{[22]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Be aware that rats do have a sweet tooth and are also particularly fond of cheese. However, sweets can cause tooth decay and fatty foods will cause a rat to gain weight and become obese, so they are best avoided.^{[23]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
EXPERT TIP
Brian Starr
Rat Specialist & Breeder
Brian Starr is a Rat Specialist and Breeder and the Owner of OC Dumbos out of Central Florida. As America’s only breeder of pet Roof Rats, Brian and OC Dumbos specialize in rat breeding, training, and care. Years of experience and several generations of careful breeding have allowed Brian and OC Dumbos to create a line of tame Roof Rats, bred to make friendly, fun pets. In addition to offering rat accessories and training resources, OC Dumbos also offers free Roof Rat adoptions.
Brian Starr
Rat Specialist & Breeder
Healthy rats are alert, clean, energetic and eager to eat. Healthy pet rats have wide, alert eyes when awake, well-groomed fur, scurry energetically, have fluid movement, and breathe normally without making any wheezing sounds. They have good appetites and eagerly devour their favorite foods.
2
Keep the cage clean. Daily "spot-checks" help maintain a clean cage, and weekly complete cleanings will ensure healthy rats.^{[24]XExpert SourceBrian Starr
Rat Specialist & BreederExpert Interview. 18 March 2021.}
- For spot cleaning of bedding, purchase a small plastic or metal scoop, similar to those sold for cleaning cat litter trays. Use this to scoop out soiled bedding, and dispose of it in a sealed plastic bag. Remove bedding that is wet, stained, or smells.
- At least once a week, do a total deep clean. Put the rat in a separate box or safe play area to keep him away from the cleaning products. Completely empty the cage and dispose of the old bedding. Wash everything else in soapy vinegar water, rinse thoroughly, and dry. It is best to keep a separate sponge, bowl, and towel specifically for cleaning the rat's items.
- With a disposable cloth wipe over all the surfaces of the cage. Rinse with water and dry. Now you are ready to put in clean bedding and replace the fixtures and fittings.
- Harsh chemicals like bleach can harm a rat's sensitive respiratory system if inhaled, so avoid using such cleansers on your rat's home. Pet-friendly disinfectant products such as Nil-Odor work well, or you can purchase disinfectants that are safe for pets from a pet store or vet clinic.^{[25]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
3
Maintain a healthy temperature. Do not leave your rats exposed to extreme temperature changes or drafts. Rats should be kept between 65 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
- If it is a particularly hot day, provide your rats with some cool, shallow water (about half an inch) to play around in; on a cold day, provide extra bedding so the rats can snuggle down and keep warm.
4
Watch for signs of illness. Caring for a rat includes seeking veterinary attention should it become ill. Signs to watch for are a lack of appetite, increased thirst, red urine, runny feces, weight loss, rapid or squeaky breathing, and rust-colored discharge from the eyes or nose.^{[26]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Check your rat once a week for the presence of skin lumps or bumps.^{[27]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Likewise, every time you handle the rat, look at its skin and make sure there are no red, inflamed patches, and that it isn't scratching excessively.^{[28]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
- Rats can pick up skin parasites from their bedding, so be on the lookout for signs of skin irritation or scabbing.^{[29]XResearch sourceThe Welfare of Animals Used in Research. Hubrecht. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell.}
5
Take your rat to a veterinarian. If you suspect your rat is unwell, take it to the vet as soon as possible.
- It is better to plan ahead and find a vet who is used to treating rodents before you get rats, or at least while your new pets are healthy.
- Ask pet shops or fellow rat-keepers to see which vet clinic they recommend. You can also search online forums relevant to your pet, and ask for recommendations. Most people are happy to share their good (and bad) experiences with rodent healthcare.^{[30]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
- Phone your chosen veterinary clinic. Ask which vet is most comfortable seeing pocket pets and if they have a special interest in rats.^{[31]XResearch sourceRat Care Guide. Annette Rand. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.}
- Another great question to ask is whether the vet keeps rodents himself. There is nothing quite like owning a pet to help with understanding another owner's concerns.

Part 4

Part 4 of 4:

Keeping Rats Happy

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Keep the rat cage in an area where you are often present and the rats can watch what's going on around them. This will prevent feelings of isolation.
2
Spend time with your rats. The more attention you give, the more bonded, active, healthy, and friendly your rat will be. A single rat is a lonely rat, and this can cause behavioral issues. Unless your rat is aggressive, they are best not left alone. Even if they are aggressive, patient love and attention can bring them around.
- Handle the rats daily, preferably two to three times a day for ten minutes or more.
- Rats love to learn and solve problems, so consider setting up little obstacle courses containing hidden treats in order to mentally stimulate your rats.
3
Teach them tricks. Teach tricks by starting slow, rewarding, and reinforcing with treats and praise if done correctly.^{[32]XExpert SourceBrian Starr
Rat Specialist & BreederExpert Interview. 18 March 2021.}
- Rats are very intelligent and can learn many tricks, such as jumping through a hoop, spinning in a circle, standing up, and even giving a handshake, all on spoken command.
- Do not punish your rat for failure. Rats don't understand negative punishments, and will only confuse the rat. Instead, give them a treat when they do it right.
- If your rat bites, don't give him a firm tap and a "no." Instead, squeak like a rat would and pull away. Eventually, your rat will understand.
- Do not forget that each rat has his or her own personality, meaning that one rat may learn differently from others. Any specific method of teaching may work for one rat, but may not for another.
- The key to successful training is to be persistent and have lots of short training sessions filled with treats.
4
Take them out. Rats enjoy a change of scenery and a chance to stretch their legs and explore. Rats should be taken out at least one hour per day. You can let them roam around on your shoulder or somewhere in your house where it won't be a problem.
- If you take your rats outside, a harness is a good idea so that you have some control if the rat becomes frightened.
- There are many rat websites, forums, and other online communities to join with other rat lovers if you'd like to talk with like-minded people and share.

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Question
Are rats good pets for beginners?
Brian Starr
Rat Specialist & Breeder
Brian Starr is a Rat Specialist and Breeder and the Owner of OC Dumbos out of Central Florida. As America’s only breeder of pet Roof Rats, Brian and OC Dumbos specialize in rat breeding, training, and care. Years of experience and several generations of careful breeding have allowed Brian and OC Dumbos to create a line of tame Roof Rats, bred to make friendly, fun pets. In addition to offering rat accessories and training resources, OC Dumbos also offers free Roof Rat adoptions.
Brian Starr
Rat Specialist & Breeder
Expert Answer
Yes, they definitely can be. Unlike cats and dogs, rats only live a few years and aren't as much of a commitment. Plus, they don't take up as much space, don't eat a ton of food, and don't have to be taken for walks.
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Do I need to bathe my rat?
Brian Starr
Rat Specialist & Breeder
Brian Starr is a Rat Specialist and Breeder and the Owner of OC Dumbos out of Central Florida. As America’s only breeder of pet Roof Rats, Brian and OC Dumbos specialize in rat breeding, training, and care. Years of experience and several generations of careful breeding have allowed Brian and OC Dumbos to create a line of tame Roof Rats, bred to make friendly, fun pets. In addition to offering rat accessories and training resources, OC Dumbos also offers free Roof Rat adoptions.
Brian Starr
Rat Specialist & Breeder
Expert Answer
Like cats, rats clean themselves. In fact, if a rat looks dirty or scruffy, he's probably sick. That's not normal. Dogs look dirty all the time because they do not clean themselves. But rats do. They spend a lot of time cleaning themselves. In fact, if you're holding a rat and he starts cleaning himself, that's a sign that he feels at ease with you, because it's a vulnerable time for them.
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What is a good treat to use for training? I want to teach my rats to come when called, and sit on my hand or shoulder. Every time I give them a piece of chip or a treat, they pull away.
Pippa Elliott, MRCVS
Veterinarian
Dr. Elliott, BVMS, MRCVS is a veterinarian with over 30 years of experience in veterinary surgery and companion animal practice. She graduated from the University of Glasgow in 1987 with a degree in veterinary medicine and surgery. She has worked at the same animal clinic in her hometown for over 20 years.
Pippa Elliott, MRCVS
Veterinarian
Expert Answer
Rats are individuals, and different rats prefer different treats. Try and stick with healthy foods which include diced fruit and vegetables. A lot of rats will go bonkers for peas, or foods that you would find tasty such as small cubes of mango, apple, pear, kiwi, melon, or banana. To start training your rat, consider using a clicker. The first step is to get the rat to link the click-clack noise to getting a treat, then you mark the behavior you want by pressing the clicker.
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Tips

Female rats tend to be more active. If you want your rat to sit on your lap for petting sessions, get a male.
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A happy and contented rat will "brux" by chipping their teeth together. Sometimes their eyes bug out a little when they do this, but don't worry! This is just like a cat purring.
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Training a rat to come on command is easy and useful. They can be trained with positive reinforcement with food rewards. This can be used to find missing rats and is something an owner should take the time to do.
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Make sure your rat exercises every day. Put lots of fun toys in their cage for them to play with. Take them out of their cage each day and play with them, too.
Reorganize or redecorate your rat's cage semi-regularly. This gives them a change of scenery that helps keep them mentally stimulated and happy.
Give your rat time to rest. They need time alone to exercise, play, and recharge by themselves.

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Warnings

Do not feed a rat through their cage bars. Feeding them through the cage may cause them to associate everything outside with food. They may try to bite whatever happens to brush the cage including people, clothing, or other pets.
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If you get an albino rat (white with red eyes) be sure to keep it away from the sun. The sun's strong rays are harmful to albinos and can damage their eyes.
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Never pick a rat up by its tail even if you need to grab it in an emergency. It causes rats extreme pain and discomfort.
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Rats are very clever and can get into spaces you wouldn't think they'd be able to. Keep a close eye on them when they're out. They like to jump off of things, too.
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Rats can be very timid, or aggressive when you first bring them home (this is especially true for pet-store rats). Be patient when handling them.
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Having a wheel that is too small can cause permanent damage to your rat. The minimum recommended diameter for a wheel is 14-16 inches for adults and 12 inches for babies or very small females.
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If you don't want your females to get pregnant, do not keep males and females in the same cage together unless the male is neutered.
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Rats chew on everything! Keep cords, shoes, clothing, and other things you don't want chewed on out of their way when they are out of their cage. And away from the outside of the cage.
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